Ecology of Harmful Algae,9783540322092

Ecology of Harmful Algae

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ISBN13: 9783540322092
ISBN10: 3540322094
Format: Hardcover
Pub. Date: 2006-10-31
Publisher(s): Springer Verlag
List Price: $169.00

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Summary

Harmful algal blooms are one of the consequences of the human impact on aquatic ecosystems, particularly the process of eutrophication. They can cause a variety of deleterious effects, including the poisoning of fish and shellfish, habitat disruptions for many organisms, water discolouration, beach fouling, and even toxic effects for humans.This volume is a comprehensive synthesis of the latest research achievements concerning harmful algae (HA) ecology. International experts provide an in-depth analysis of HA topics including: global distribution, ecology of major HA groups, ecology and physiology of HA, HA and the food web, studying and mitigating HA, the human impact on HA and HA impact on human activity. This volume is an invaluable source of information for researchers in HA ecology as well as for advanced students, lecturers, and environmental managers.

Table of Contents

Part A Harmful Algae and Their Global Distribution
1 An Introduction to Harmful Algae
3(6)
E. GRANÉLI and J.T. TURNER
References
7(2)
2 Molecular Taxonomy of Harmful Algae
9(14)
S. JANSON and P.K. HAYES
2.1 Introduction
9(1)
2.2 Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates)
10(4)
2.2.1 General Morphology
10(1)
2.2.2 Dinophysis
11(1)
2.2.3 Alexandrium
11(1)
2.2.4 Protoperidinium, Prorocentrum
12(1)
2.2.5 Karenia, Karlodinium, Takayama
13(1)
2.2.6 Amphidinium, Cochlodinium, Gyrodinium
14(1)
2.3 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)
14(3)
2.3.1 Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Nodularia
14(1)
2.3.2 Microcystis
15(1)
2.3.3 Trichodesmium
16(1)
2.4 Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)
17(1)
2.4.1 Amphora, Pseudo-nitzschia, Nitzschia
17(1)
2.5 Concluding Remarks
17(1)
References
18(5)
3 The Biogeography of Harmful Algae
23(14)
N. LUNDHOLM and Ø. MOESTRUP
3.1 Biogeography and Species Concepts
23(2)
3.1.1 Genetic Variation
24(1)
3.2 Biogeographical Distribution
25(1)
3.3 Distribution of Harmful Species
26(6)
3.3.1 Dinoflagellates
26(1)
3.3.2 Diatoms
27(2)
3.3.3 Haptophytes
29(1)
3.3.4 Raphidophyceans
29(2)
3.3.5 Cyanobacteria
31(1)
References
32(5)
4 Importance of Life Cycles in the Ecology of Harmful Microalgae
37(16)
K.A. STEIDINGER and E. GARCÉS
4.1 Introduction
37(2)
4.2 Phases of Phytoplankton Bloom Development and Life Cycles
39(5)
4.2.1 Initiation
39(2)
4.2.2 Growth and Maintenance
41(3)
4.2.3 Dispersal/Dissipation/Termination
44(1)
4.3 Environmental Factors versus Biological Factors Affecting Transition
44(1)
4.4 Status of Knowledge and Direction Needed
45(2)
References
47(6)
Part B The Ecology of Major Harmful Algae Groups
5 The Ecology of Harmful Dinoflagellates
53(74)
J.M. BURKHOLDER, R.V. AZANZA, and Y. SAKO
5.1 Introduction
53(1)
5.2 General Ecology
54(5)
5.2.1 Motility
54(1)
5.2.2 Temperature, Light, Salinity and Turbulence
55(1)
5.2.3 Nutrition: the Continuum from Auxotrophy to Parasitism
56(3)
5.3 Blooms, Including Toxic Outbreaks
59(1)
5.4 Human Influences
60(1)
5.5 Conceptual Frameworks to Advance Understanding
61(3)
References
64(3)
6 The Ecology of Harmful Flagellates Within Prymnesiophyceae and Raphidophyceae
67(14)
B. EDVARDSEN and I. IMAI
6.1 Introduction
67(1)
6.2 Class Prymnesiophyceae (Division Haptophyta)
67(5)
6.2.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History
67(1)
6.2.2 Distribution and Abundance
68(1)
6.2.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology
69(1)
6.2.4 Toxicity and Toxins
70(1)
6.2.5 Ecological Strategies
71(1)
6.3 Class Raphidophyceae (Division Heterokontophyta)
72(5)
6.3.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History
72(1)
6.3.2 Distribution and Abundance
73(1)
6.3.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology
74(1)
6.3.4 Toxicity
75(1)
6.3.5 Ecological Strategies
75(2)
References
77(4)
7 The Ecology of Harmful Diatoms
81(14)
S.S. BATES and V.L. TRAINER
7.1 Introduction
81(1)
7.2 Toxin-Producing Diatoms, Genus Pseudo-nitzschia
82(1)
7.3 Domoic Acid in the Marine Food Web
83(1)
7.4 Physiological Ecology of Pseudo-nitzschia spp
84(2)
7.5 Molecular Tools for Studying Pseudo-nitzschia
86(1)
7.6 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research
87(1)
References
88(7)
8 Ecology of Harmful Cyanobacteria
95(16)
H.W. PAERL and R.S. FULTON III
8.1 Introduction
95(2)
8.2 Environmental Factors Controlling CyanoHABs
97(7)
8.2.1 Nutrients
97(5)
8.2.2 Physical-Chemical Factors: Salinity and Turbulence
102(1)
8.2.3 Salinity and Turbulence
102(2)
8.3 CyanoHAB Interactions with Micro/Macroorganisms
104(2)
8.4 CyanoHAB Management
106(1)
References
107(4)
9 Brown Tides
111
C.J. GOBLER and W.G. SUNDA
9.1 Background
111(2)
9.2 Nutrients and Physical Factors
113(4)
9.3 Sources of Cell Mortality
117(3)
References
120(7)
Part C The Ecology and Physiology of Harmful Algae
10 Harmful Algal Bloom Dynamics in Relation to Physical Processes
127(132)
F.G. FIGUEIRAS, G.C. PITCHER, and M. ESTRADA
10.1 Introduction
127(1)
10.2 Physical Constraints: From Diffusion to Advection
128(1)
10.3 Life-Forms
129(1)
10.4 Algal Communities
130(1)
10.5 Retention and Transport
131(5)
10.5.1 Retention-Reduced Exchange
131(2)
10.5.2 Transport
133(3)
References
136(3)
11 Ecological Aspects of Harmful Algal In Situ Population Growth Rates
139(1)
W. STOLTE and E. GARCÉS
11.1 Introduction
139(1)
11.2 Ecological Interpretation of In Situ Growth Rate Measurements
140(3)
11.3 In Situ Growth Rates; Variation Among Taxonomic Groups
143(4)
11.4 Are Harmful Algal Species r- or K-Strategists?
147(2)
11.5 Conclusions
149(1)
References
149(4)
12 Harmful Algae and Cell Death
153(1)
M.J.W. Veldhuis and C.P.D. Brussaard
12.1 Introduction
153(3)
12.2 Mortality of HABs
156(1)
12.3 Death Due to HABs
157(1)
12.4 Mechanisms to Avoid Cell Mortality
158(1)
12.5 Ecological Implications
159(1)
References
160(3)
13 The Diverse Nutrient Strategies of Harmful Algae: Focus on Osmotrophy
163(1)
P.M. GLIBERT and C. LEGRAND
13.1 Introduction and Terminology
163(1)
13.2 Osmotrophy Pathways and Methods to Explore Them
164(3)
13.3 Cellular Costs and Benefits of Osmotrophy
167(1)
13.4 Ecological Significance of Osmotrophy
168(2)
13.5 A Comment on Evolutionary Aspects of Osmotrophy
170(1)
13.6 Conclusions
171(1)
References
171(6)
14 Phagotrophy in Harmful Algae
177(1)
D. STOECKER, U. TILLMANN, and E. GRANÉLI
14.1 Introduction
177(3)
14.2 Phagotrophy and its Advantages
180(2)
14.3 Relationship of Phagotrophy to Toxicity
182(2)
14.4 Significance of Phagotrophy
184(1)
References
185(4)
15 Allelopathy in Harmful Algae: A Mechanism to Compete for Resources?
189(1)
E. GRANÉLI and P.J. HANSEN
15.1 Harmful Algal Species Known of Allelopathy
189(1)
15.2 Approaches to Demonstrate/Study Allelopathy - Pitfalls and Strength/Weaknesses of Experimental Approaches
189(3)
15.3 Which Toxins are Involved in the Allelopathic Effects?
192(2)
15.4 Influence of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on Allelopathy
194(4)
15.4.1 Abiotic Factors
194(2)
15.4.2 Biotic Factors
196(2)
15.5 Ecological Significance of Allelopathy in Marine Ecosystems
198(1)
References
199(4)
16 Trace Metals and Harmful Algal Blooms
203(1)
W.G. SUNDA
16.1 Introduction
203(1)
16.2 Chemistry and Availability of Metals
204(1)
16.3 Trace Metals as Limiting Nutrients
205(2)
16.4 Trace Metal Toxicity
207(1)
16.5 Trace Metal Effects on HABs: Domoic Acid Production in Pseudo-nitzschia
208(2)
16.6 Trace Metal Effects on Other HAB Species
210(1)
References
211(4)
17 Molecular Physiology of Toxin Production and Growth Regulation in Harmful Algae
215(1)
A. CEMBELLA and U. JOHN
17.1 Introduction
215(1)
17.2 Phycotoxin Biosynthesis
216(1)
17.3 Growth and Regulation of Toxin Production
217(2)
17.4 Toxin Production Through the Cell Cycle
219(1)
17.5 Molecular Approaches to Growth and Toxin Expression
220(3)
17.6 Current and Future Perspectives
223(3)
References
226(3)
18 Chemical and Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content
229(1)
E. Granéli and K. Flynn
18.1 Introduction
229(1)
18.2 Growth Stage and Toxin Production
229(1)
18.3 Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content
230(1)
18.4 Inorganic Nutrients and Toxin Content
231(6)
18.5 Organic Matter and Toxin Content
237(1)
18.6 Conclusions
238(1)
References
239(4)
19 Relationships Between Bacteria and Harmful Algae
243(1)
M. KODAMA, G.J. DOUCETTE, and D.H. GREEN
19.1 Introduction
243(1)
19.2 Diversity of Algal-Associated Bacteria
244(3)
19.2.1 Bacteria Associated with Harmful Algal Species
244(2)
19.2.2 Spatio-Temporal Relationships Between Bacteria and Algae
246(1)
19.3 Bacterial Influences on Algal Growth, Metabolism, and Toxins
247(3)
19.3.1 Bacterial Effects on Algal Growth
247(1)
19.3.2 The Role of Bacteria in Toxin Production
248(1)
19.3.3 Bacterially-Mediated Release and Metabolism of Algal Toxins
249(1)
19.4 Potential Implications of Interactions Among Bacteria
250(1)
19.5 Future Directions/Research Needs/Critical Questions
251(1)
References
252(7)
Part D Harmful Algae and the Food Web
20 Harmful Algae Interactions with Marine Planktonic Grazers
259(40)
J.T. TURNER
20.1 Introduction
259(1)
20.2 Planktonic Grazers
260(3)
20.2.1 Heterotrophic Dinoflagellates and other Flagellates
260(1)
20.2.2 Tintinnids and Aloricate Ciliates
261(1)
20.2.3 Rotifers
261(1)
20.2.4 Copepods and other Mesozooplankton
262(1)
20.3 HAB Toxin Accumulation in Zooplankton
263(1)
20.4 Selective Grazing and Feeding Deterrence by Harmful Algae
263(1)
20.5 Impact of Zooplankton Grazing on Formation and Termination of HA Blooms
264(1)
20.6 Conclusions
265(1)
References
266(5)
21 Pathogens of Harmful Microalgae
271(1)
P.S. SALOMON and I. IMAI
21.1 Introduction
271(1)
21.2 Viruses
271(2)
21.2.1 Host Specificity
273(1)
21.3 Algicidal Bacteria
273(2)
21.3.1 Modes of Algicidal Activity and Specificity
273(1)
21.3.2 Ecology of Algicidal Bacteria and Harmful Microalgae
274(1)
21.3.3 Seaweed Beds as Prevention of HABs
275(1)
21.4 Parasitic Fungi
275(1)
21.4.1 Host Specificity
276(1)
21.5 Parasitic Protists
276(3)
21.5.1 Host Specificity
278(1)
21.5.2 Host Avoidance of Parasitic Infection
278(1)
21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
279(1)
References
280(3)
22 Phycotoxin Pathways in Aquatic Food Webs: Transfer, Accumulation, and Degradation
283(1)
G.J. DOUCETTE, I. MANEIRO, I. RIVEIRO, and C. SVENSEN
22.1 Introduction
283(1)
22.2 Bacteria
283(2)
22.3 Zooplankton
285(1)
22.4 Bivalves
286(1)
22.5 Benthic Invertebrates (Non-Bivalves)
287(1)
22.6 Fishes
288(1)
22.7 Seabirds and Marine Mammals
289(1)
22.8 Summary and Conclusions
290(3)
References
293(6)
Part E Studying and Mitigating Harmful Algae: New Approaches
23 Molecular Approaches to the Study of Phytoplankton Life Cycles: Implications for Harmful Algal Bloom Ecology
299(42)
R.W. LITAKER and P.A. TESTER
23.1 Introduction
299(1)
23.2 Identifying Life Cycle Stages Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)
299(2)
23.3 Nuclear Staining to Determine Ploidy and Growth Rates
301(1)
23.4 Genomic Approaches to Identifying Mitotic and Meiotic Life Cycle Stages
302(3)
23.5 Measuring Genetic Recombination During Sexual Reproduction
305(1)
23.6 Future Application of Reverse Transcriptase Assays and DNA Microarrays in Life Cycle Studies
305(2)
23.7 Conclusions
307(1)
References
307(4)
24 Laboratory and Field Applications of Ribosomal RNA Probes to Aid the Detection and Monitoring of Harmful Algae
311(1)
K. METFIES, K. TÖBE, C. SCHOLIN, and L.K. MEDLIN
24.1 Introduction
311(1)
24.2 Ribosomal RNA Sequences as Markers for Phylogenetic Studies and Species Identification
312(1)
24.3 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH) for Identifying Intact Cells
312(4)
24.3.1 TSA-FISH for Flow Cytometry
314(1)
24.3.2 TSA-FISH for Solid Phase Cytometry
315(1)
24.4 Detecting Many Species Simultaneously Using DNA Probe Arrays
316(4)
24.4.1 Microarrays on Glass Slides and Fluorescence Detection
316(2)
24.4.2 Handheld Array Device That Uses Electro-Chemical Detection
318(1)
24.4.3 DNA Probe Arrays for Autonomous Detection of Species Using the Environmental Sample Processor (ESP)
319(1)
24.5 Conclusions
320(1)
References
321(6)
25 Mitigation and Controls of HABs
327(1)
H.G. Kim
25.1 Introduction
327(1)
25.2 Mitigation Strategies and Control of HABs
328(7)
25.2.1 Precautionary Impact Preventions
328(1)
25.2.2 Direct and Indirect Bloom Controls
329(5)
25.2.3 Contingency Plans for Fish Culture
334(1)
25.3 Conclusions
335(1)
References
335(6)
Part F Human Impact on Harmful Algae and Harmful Algae Impact on Human Activity
26 The Complex Relationships Between Increases in Fertilization of the Earth, Coastal Eutrophication and Proliferation of Harmful Algal Blooms
341(62)
P.M. Glibert and J.M. Burkholder
26.1 Introduction
341(1)
26.2 Global Trends in Population, Agricultural Fertilizer Usage and Implications for Export to Coastal Waters
341(2)
26.3 Nutrient Limitation versus Eutrophication: Basic Conceptual Framework
343(1)
26.4 Nutrient Loading, Nutrient Composition, and HABs
344(3)
26.5 Factors Complicating the Relationship Between Eutrophication and HABs
347(3)
26.6 Conclusions
350(1)
References
351(4)
27 "Top-Down" Predation Control on Marine Harmful Algae
355(1)
J.T. Turner and E. Granéli
27.1 Introduction
355(2)
27.2 "Top-down" Predators
357(2)
27.2.1 Medusae
357(1)
27.2.2 Ctenophores
358(1)
27.2.3 Fishes
358(1)
27.3 Case Studies
359(3)
27.3.1 Black Sea
359(1)
27.3.2 Mesocosm Studies
360(2)
27.4 Conclusions
362(1)
References
363(4)
28 Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms
367(1)
B. Dale, M. Edwards, and P. C. Reid
28.1 Introduction
367(2)
28.2 Evidence from the Past
369(1)
28.3 Results from Plankton Records
370(2)
28.4 Results from the Sedimentary Record of Dinoflagellate Cysts
372(3)
28.5 Conclusions
375(1)
References
376(3)
29 Anthropogenic Introductions of Microalgae
379(1)
G. HALLEGRAEFF and S. GOLLASCH
29.1 Potential Transport Vectors for Microalgae
379(1)
29.2 Vector Surveys for Microalgae
380(1)
29.3 Evidence for Successful Establishment of Non-Indigenous Microalgae
381(2)
29.3.1 Absence in Historic Samples
381(1)
29.3.2 Sediment Cyst Cores
381(1)
29.3.3 Increasing Molecular Evidence
382(1)
29.4 Management Options to Reduce Risk of Introductions
383(5)
29.4.1 Warning System for HABs in Ballast-Water-Uptake Zones
383(1)
29.4.2 Ballast Water Exchange Studies on Phytoplankton
384(2)
29.4.3 Treatment Options
386(2)
29.5 Conclusions
388(1)
References
388(3)
30 The Economic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms
391(1)
P. Hoagland and S. Scatasta
30.1 Introduction
391(1)
30.2 Scientific Concerns
392(1)
30.3 Economic Concerns
392(1)
30.4 Why Measure Economic Losses?
393(1)
30.5 Economic Losses
394(3)
30.6 Economic Impacts
397(1)
30.7 Estimates of National Economic Effects
398(3)
30.8 Conclusions
401(1)
References
402(1)
Subject Index 403

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